Outline

Session #: 1

Summary
Exploring life on its many levels: each level of biological organization has emergent properties. Cells are an organism’s basic units of structure and function. The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA. Structure and function are correlated at all levels of Biological organization. Organisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environments. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic balance in living systems. Diversity and unity are dual faces of life on Earth. Evolution is the core theme of biology. Science is a process of inquiry that includes repeatable observations and testable hypotheses. Science and technology are functions of society.
Terms	Readings
The cell theory The theory of natural selection The theory of evolution Emergent properties Population Individuals Heritable trait Taxonomy Nomenclature Conclusion Hypothesis Taxidermy Theory Fact Experiment Control group Replication Randomization of treatments Experimental subject Technology	Chapter 1 , Biology 6th ed. Campbell and Reece.
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 2

Summary
The chemical context of life includes chemical elements and compounds. Life requires about 25 chemical elements. Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element. Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form molecules. Weak chemical bonds play important roles in the chemistry of life. A molecule’s biological function is related to its shape. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds. The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding. Organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules. Water moderates temperatures on Earth. Oceans and lakes don’t freeze because ice floats. Water is the solvent of life. Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH. Acid precipitation threatens the fitness of the environment
Terms	Readings
Theory of Spontaneous Generation Prebiotic evolution Chemical evolution The Primordial Soup Hypothesis Anion Cation Electron Neutron Proton Atomic number Atomic mass Peptide bond Ionic bond Covalent bond Hydrogen bond Glycosidic bond Polar molecule Nonpolar molecule Cohesion Adhesion Disassociation Solvent Solute Photon Free radicals ATP Reduced compounds PH Acid Base Acidosis Alkylosis	Text: Chapter 2 & 3
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 3

Summary

Organic Chemistry is the study of organic compounds. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules. Variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules. Functional groups contribute to the molecular diversity of life. Most macromolecules are polymers. An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers. Carbohydrates include sugars, which serve as fuel and carbon sources. Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles. Fats store large amounts of energy. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones. Proteins are polypeptides, which are polymers of amino acids connected in a specific sequence. A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information. A nucleic acid strand is a polymer of nucleotides. Inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix. We can use DNA and proteins as tape measurers of evolution.

Terms
Readings

Stanley & Miller’s experiment
Monomer
Polymer’
Macromolecule
Condensation reaction
Dehydration reaction
Hydrolysis
Synthesis
Carbohydrate
Saccharide
Monosaccharide
Polysaccharide
Gycosidic llinkage
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin
Lipid
Fat
Oil
Hydrophopic
Hydrophilic
Phospholipid
Steroids
Cholesterol
Protein
Amino acid
Polypeptide bond
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Disulfide bridges
Quaternary structure
Denaturation
Renaturation
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Nucleotide
Purine
Pyrimidines
Double helix
Text: Chapter 4 & 5

Resources Assignments

Session #: 4

Summary

How we study Cells by using microscopes. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in size and complexity. Internal membranes compartmentalize the functions of a eukaryotic cell. The nucleus contains a eukaryotic cell’s genetic library. Ribosomes build a cell’s proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and performs many other biosynthetic functions. The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products. Lysosomes are digestive compartments. Vacuoles have diverse functions in cell maintenance. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of cells. Peroxisomes generate and degrade Hydrogen Peroxide in performing various metabolic functions. Providing structural support to the cell, the cytoskelton also functions in cell motility and regulation. Plant cells are encased by cell walls. The extracellulalr matrix (ECM) of animal cells functions in support, adhesion, movement and regulation. Intercellular junctions help integrate cells into higher levels of structure and function. The cell is a living unit greater than the sum of its parts. Membrane models have evolved to fit new data. Membranes are fluid. Membranes are mosaics of structure and function. Membrane carbohydrates are important for cell-cell recognition. A membrane’s molecular organization results in selective permeability. Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane. Osmosis is the passive transport of water. Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake and loss. Specific proteins facilitate the passive transport of water and selected solutes. Active transport is the pumping of solutes against their gradients. Some ion pumps generate voltage across membranes. In cotransport a membrane protein couples the transport of two solutes. Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules.

Terms
Readings

Light microscope
Electron microscope
Prokaryotic cells
Nucleoid
Eukaryotic cells
Organelles
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Ribosome
Endomembrane system
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Peroxisome
Cytoskeleton
Microtubule
Microfilament
Cilia
Flagella
Basal body
Cell wall
Cellulose
Extracellular matrix (ECM)
Plasmodesmata
Fluid mosaic model
Phospholipid bilayer
Selectively permeable
Bulk flow
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport
Active transport
Cotransport
Turgor pressure
Sodium-potassium pump
Osmosis
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Isotonic
Oligosaccarides
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Endocytosis
Text: Chapter 7 & 8

Resources Assignments

Session #: 5

Summary
The chemistry of life is organized into metabolic pathways. An organism transforms energy. The energy transformations of life are subject to two laws of thermodynamics. Organisms live at the expense of free energy. ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions. Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers. Enzymes are substrate specific. A cell’s physical and chemical environment affects enzyme activity. Metabolic control often depends on allosteric regulation. The theme of emergent properties is manifest in the chemistry of life. Cellular respiration and fermentation are catabolic, energy-yielding pathways. Cells recycle the ATP they use for work. Redox reactions release energy when electrons move closer to electronegative atoms. Electrons “fall” from organic molecules to oxygen during cellular respiration. The “fall” of electrons during respiration is stepwise, via NAD+ and an electron transport chain. Respiration involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate. The Krebs cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane couples electron transport to ATP synthesis. Cellular respiration generates many ATP molecules for each sugar molecule it oxidizes. Fermentation enables some cells to produce ATP without the help of oxygen. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways. Feedback mechanisms control cellular respiration.
Terms	Readings
Metabolism Catabolic pathways Anabolic pathways Bioenergetics Kinetic energy Potential energy Chemical energy First law of Thermodynamics Second law of Thermodynamics Entropy Free energy Work Exergonic reaction Endergonic reaction Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Energy of activation Enzyme Substrate Competitive inhibitors Allosteric site Feedback inhibition Lactic acid fermentation Alcohol fermentation Cellular respiration Redox reactions Reducing agent Oxidizing agent Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Electron transport chain Electron acceptor Glycolysis Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation Cytochromes ATP synthase Aerobic reaction Anaerobic reaction	Text: Chapters 6 & 9
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 6

Summary
Plants and other autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere. Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants. Evidence that chloroplasts split water molecules enables researchers to track atoms through photosynthesis. The light reactions and the Calvin cycle cooperate in converting light energy to the chemical energy of food. The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar. Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates. Photosynthesis is the biosphere’s metabolic foundation. Cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair. Cell division distributes identical sets of chromosomes to daughter cells. The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle. The mitotic spindle distributes chromosomes to daughter cells. Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm. Mitosis in eukaryotes may have evolved from binary fission in bacteria. A molecular control system drives the cell cycle. Internal and external cues help regulate the cell cycle. Cancer cells have escaped from cell cycle controls.
Terms	Readings
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Mesophyll of leaves Photophosphorylation Carbon fixation Wavelength of light Electromagnetic sprectrum Visible light Photons Cholorphyll a Chlorophyll b Carotenoids Photosystem I Photosystem II Electron transport chain The Calvin cycle Noncyclic electron flow Cyclic electron flow Glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate (G3P) Rubisco Pyruvate C4 plants Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Cell division Cell cycle Genome Chromosome Chromatin Sister chromatids Somatic cells Germ cells Chromatin Interphase M phase G1 phase G2 phase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Centrosome Centromere Kinetochore Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Binary fission Cancer cells and mitosis	Text: Chapter 10 & 12
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Session #: 7

Summary
Offspring obtain genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes. Like begets like, more or less: a comparison of asexual and sexual reproduction. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid. Sexual life cycles produce genetic variation among offspring. Evolutionary adaptation depends on a population’s genetic variation. Gregor Mendel brought an experimental and quantitative approach to genetics. By the law of segregation, the tow alleles for a character are packaged into separate gametes. By the law of independent assortment, each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently. Mendelian inheritance reflects rules of probability. Mendel discovered the particulate behavior of genes. The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely simple. Pedigree analysis reveals Mendelian patterns in human inheritance. Many human disorders follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance. Technology is providing new tools for genetics testing and counseling.
Terms	Readings
Genes Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction Clone Somatic cell Karyotype Autosomes Sex chromosomes Gametes Meiosis I Meiosis II Synapsis Crossing over Chiasmata Recombinant chromosomes Genetic trait Hybrid True-breeding P generation F1 generation F2 generation Law of segregation Dominant allele Recessive allele Homozygous Heterozygous Phenotype Genotype Monohybrid cross Test cross Dihybrid cross Law of independent assortment Complete dominance Incomplete dominance Codominance Blood types of humans Pleiotropy Epstasis Quantitative character Polygenic inheritance Pedigree Cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs disease Sickle-cell disease Huntington’s disease Amniocentesis Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)	Text: Chapters 13 & 14
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 8

Summary
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles. Thomas H. Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome. Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome. Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over produce genetic recombination. Genetics can use recombination data to map a chromosome’s genetic loci. The chromosomal basis of sex varies with the organism. Sex linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance. Alternative of chromosomes number or structure cause some genetic disorders. The phenotypic effects of some mammalian genes depend on whether they are inherited form the mother or the father (imprinting). The search for the genetic material lead to DNA. Watson and Crick discovered the double helix by building models to conform to X-ray data. During DNA replication, base pairing enables existing DNA strands to serve as templates for new complimentary strands. A large team of enzymes and other proteins carries out DNA replication. Enzymes proofread DNA during its replication and repair damage in existing DNA. The ends of DNA molecules are replicated by a special mechanism.
Terms	Readings
Chromosome theory of inheritance Wild-type gene Sex-linked genes Gene linkage Genetic recombination Parental types Recombinants Linkage maps Map units Duchenne muscular dystrophy Hemophilia Barr body Nondisjunction Aneuploidy Trisomic Monosomic Polyploidy Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation Down syndrome Genomic imprinting Fragile X syndrome Bacteriophage Double helix Replicaton Semiconservative model Origins of replication Replication fork DNA polymerase DNA ligase 3’ end 5’ end Lagging strand Leading strand Okazaki fragments Helicase Single-strand binding protein Mismatch repair of DNA Nucleotide excision repair Telomeres Telomerase Polymerase Chain Reaction	Text: Chapters 15 & 16
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 9

Summary
The connection between genes and proteins may be revealed by the study of metabolic defects. These provided evidence that genes specify proteins. Transcription and translation are the two main processes linking gene to protein. In the genetic code, nucleotide triplets specify amino acids. The genetic code must have evolved very early in the history of life. Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA. Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription. Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide. Signal peptides target some eukaryotic polypeptides to specific destinations in the cell. RNA plays multiple roles in the cell. Comparing protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Point mutations can affect protein structure and function.
Terms	Readings
Beadle and Tatum One gene-one enzyme hypothesis Transcription Messenger RNA Translation RNA processing triplet code Codon Template strand Genetic code RNA polymerase Promoter Terminator TATA box 5’ cap Poly (A) tail RNA splicing Introns Exons Splicosome Transfer RNA (tRNA) Codon Anticodon Wobble Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) P site A site E site Initiation stage of translation Elongation stage of translation Termination stage of translation Polyribosomes Point mutations Base-pair substitution Missense mutations Nonsense mutations Frameshift mutation Mutagens	Text: Chapters 15 & 16
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 10

Summary
Researchers discovered viruses studying a plant disease. A virus is a genome enclosed in a protective coat. Viruses can reproduce only within a host cell. Phages reproduce using lytic or lysogenic cycles. Animal viruses are diverse in their modes of infection and replication. Plant viruses are serious agricultural pests. Viroids and prions are infectious agents even simpler than viruses. Viruses may have evolved from other mobile genetic elements. Bacteria and archea are the two main branches of prokaryote evolution. Nearly all prokaryotes have a cell wall external to the plasma membrane. Many prokaryotes are motile. The cellular and genomic organization of prokaryotes is fundamentally different from that of eukaryotes. Populations of prokaryotes grow and adapt rapidly. Prokaryotes can be grouped into four categories according to how they obtain energy and carbon. Photosynthesis evolved early in prokaryotic life. Molecular systematics is leading to a phylogenetic classification of prokaryotes. Researchers are identifying a great diversity of archea in extreme environments and in the oceans. Most known prokaryotes are bacteria. Prokaryotes are indispensable links in the recycling of chemical elements in ecosystems. Many prokaryotes are symbiotic. Pathogenic prokaryotes cause many human diseases. Humans use prokaryotes in research and technology.
Terms	Readings
Virqal genome Capsid Viral envelope Bacteriophage Host range Lytic cycle Virulence Lysogenic cycle Temperate phage Provirus Retrovirus Reverse transcriptase Vaccine Emerging viruses Viriods Prions “Mad cow disease” Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease Bacteria Archea Biological Domains Peptidoglycan Gram stain Gram positive Gram negative Pili Nucleoid region Binary fission Transformation Conjugation Transduction Endospores Photoautotrophs Chemoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs Chemoheterotrophs Saprobes Parasites Obligate aerobes Facultative anaerobes Obligate anaerobes Methanogens Extremophiles Halophiles Thermophiles Decomposers Symbiosis Koch’s postulates Exotoxins Endotoxins Bioremediation	Text: Chapters 18 & 27
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Session #: 11

Summary
Systematists have split protists into many kingdoms. Protists are the most diverse of all eukaryotes. Endomembranes contributed to larger, more complex cells. Mitochondria and plastids evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. Secondary endosymbiosis increased the diversity of algae. Research among the three domains is changing ideas about the deepest branching in the tree of life. Diplomonadida and Parabasala lack mitochondria. Euglenozoa includes both photosynthetic and heterotrophic flagellates. Alveolata are unicellular protests with subsurface cavities (alveoli). Stramenopila include water molds and the heterokont algae. Structural and biochemical adaptations help seaweeds survive and reproduce at the ocean’s margins. Some algae have life cycles with alternating multicellular haploid and diploid generations. Rhodophyta lack flagella. Chlorophyta and plants evolved from a common photoaurtrophic ancestor. A diversity of protists use pseudopodia for movement and feeding. Mycetozoa have structural adaptations and life cycles that enhance their ecological roles as decomposers. Multicellularity originated independently many times.
Terms	Readings
Kingdom Protista Mixotrophs Protozoa Algae Syngamy Cysts Plankton Phytoplankton Endomembranes Plastids Serial endosymbiosis Secondary endosymbiosis “LUCA” Diplomonads Parabasalids Thrichomonads Euglenoids Kinetoplastids Alveolata Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Sporozoites Ciliophora Conjugation Stramenopila Oomycotes Water molds White rusts Downy mildews Heterokont algae Diatoms Chrysophyta (Golden algae) Phaeophyta (Brown algae) Alternation of generations Sporophyte Gametophyte Heteromorphic generation Isomorphic generation Rhodophyta (Red algae) Chlorophyta (Green algae) Lichens Pseudopodia Rhizopodia (Amoebas) Actinopoda (Heliozons & Radiolarians) Foraminifera (Forams) Mycotezoa (Slime molds) Myxogastrida (Plasmodial slime molds) Plasmodium Dictyostelida (Cellular slime molds)	Text: Chapter 28
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 12

Summary
Absorptive nutrition allows fungi to live as decomposers and symbionts. Extensive surface area and rapid growth adapt fungi for absorptive nutrition. Fungi disperse and reproduce by releasing spores that are produced either sexually or asexually. Many fungi have a heterokaryotic stage. Phylum Chytridiomycota may provide clues about fungal origins. Phylum Zygomycota form resistant structures during sexual reproduction. Phylum Ascomycota produce sexual spores in saclike asci. Phylum Basidiomycota have long-lived dikaryotic mycelia. Molds, yeasts, lichens and mychorrhizae are specialized lifestyles that evolved independently in diverse fungal phyla. Ecosystems depend on fungi as decomposers and symbionts. Some fungi are pathogens. Fungi are commercially important. Fungi colonized land with plants. Fungi and animals evolved form a common protistan ancestor. Evolutionary adaptations to terrestrial living characterize the four main groups of land plants. Charaphyceans are the green algae most closely related to land plants. Several terrestrial adaptations distinguish land plants from charophycean algae. Land plants evolved from Charophycean algae over 500 million years ago. Alternation of generations in plants may have originated by delayed meiosis. Adaptation for shallow water preadapted plants for living on land. The plant kingdom is monophyletic. The three phyla of Bryophytes are mosses, liverworts and hornworts. The gametophyte is the dominant generation in the life cycle of bryophytes. Bryophytes sporophytes disperse enormous number of spores. Bryophytes provide many ecological and economic benefits. Additional terrestrial adaptations evolved as vascular plants descended form mosslike ancestors. A diversity of vascular plants evolved over 400 million years ago. Pteridiophytes provide clues to the evolution of roots and leaves. A sporophyte-dominant life cycle evolved in seedless vascular plants. Lycophyta and Pterophyta are the two phyla of modern seedless vascular plants. Seedless vascular plants formed vast “coal forests” during the Carboniferous period.
Terms	Readings
Nutrient absorption Exoenzymes Hyphae Mycelium Septa Chitin Coenocytic Haustoria Heterokaryon Plasmogamy Dikaryotic Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Mycorrhizae Zygosporangia Ascomycota Asci Ascocarps Conidia Basidiomycota Basidium Club fungus Basidiocarps Molds Imperfect fungi Yeasts Lichens Soredia Mycorrhizae Fungal pathogens Mycosis Bryophytes Vascular plants Vascular tissue Pteridpphytes Gymnoperms Angiosperms Charophyceans Apical meristems Placental transfer cells Embryophytes Gametophyte Sporophyte Spore Sporangia Spore mother cells Gametangia Archegonia Antheridia Cuticle Stomata Xylem Phloem “deep green” Mosses Liverworts Hornworts Calyptera Peristome Seedless vascular plants Homosporous plant Heterosporous plant
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 13

Summary
Reduction of the gametophyte continued with the evolution of seed plants. Seeds became an important means of dispersing offspring. Pollen eliminated the liquid-water requirements for fertilization. The two clades of seed plants are gymnosperms and angiosperms. The Mesozoic era was the age of gymnosperms. The four phyla of extant gymnosperms are ginkgo, cycads, gnetophytes, and conifers. The life cycle of a pine demonstrates the key reproductive adaptations of seed plants. Systematists are identifying the angiosperm clades. The flower is the defining reproductive adaptation of angiosperms. Fruits help disperse the seeds of angiosperms. The life cycle of an angiosperm is a highly refined version of the alternation of generations common to all plants. The radiation of angiosperms marks the transition from the Mesozoic era to the Cenozoic era. Angiosperms and animals have shaped one another’s evolution. Agriculture is based almost entirely on angiosperms. Plant diversity is a nonrewable resource. Both genes and environment affect plant structure. Plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves. Plant organs are composed of three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. Plant tissues are composed of three basic cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Meristems generate cells for new organs throughout the lifetime of a plant. Primary growth: Apical meristems extend roots and shoots by giving rise to the primary plant body. Secondary growth: Lateral meristems add girth b y producing secondary vascular tissue and periderm. Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants. Growth, morphogenisis, and differentiation produce the plant body. Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion. Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation. Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristem’s change from a vegetative to a floral phase.
Terms	Readings
Seed plants Gymnosperms Megasporangium Ovule Pollen Pollination Conifers Sporophylls Mesozoic era Gingko Cycads Gnetophytes Angiosperms Phylum Anthophyta Monocotyledonae Dicotlyedonae Eudicots Flower Sepals Petals Stamens Filament Anther Carpel Stigma Style Ovary Fruit Pericarp Pollen grains Ovules Embryo sac Cross-pollination Double fertilization Endosperm Cenozoic era Coevolution Agriculture Atropine Menthol Morphine Quinine Taxol Vinblastine Root system Shoot system Fibrous roots Taproot Root hairs Stems Node Internode Axillary bud Terminal bud Apical dominance Leaves Blade Petiole Ground tissue Dermal tissue Vascular tissue Xylem Tracheids Vessel elements Phloem Sieve-tube members Sieve plates Companion cell Ground tissue Pith Cortex Parenchyma cells Collenchyma cells Sclerenchyma cells Fibers Sclereids Meristem tissues Annual plants Biennial plants Perennial plants Apical meristems Primary growth Secondary growth Lateral meristems Primary growth of roots Root cap Endodermis Pericycycle Stele Primary growth of shoots Vascular bundles Stomata Guard cells Mesophyll of leaves Secondary growth of stems Vascular cambium Cork cambium Periderm Lenticels Bark Pattern formation Positional information Polarity Phase change of development	Text Chapters 30 & 35
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 14

Summary
Transport at the cellular level depends on the selective permeability of membranes. Proton pumps play a central role in transport across plant membranes. Differences in water potential drive water transport in plant cells. Aquaporins affect the rate of water transport across membranes. Vacuolated plant cells have three major compartments. Both the symplast and the apoplast function in transport within tissues and organs. Bulk flow functions in long-distance transport. Root hairs, mycorrhizae, and a large surface area of cortical cells enhance water and mineral absorption. The endodermis functions as a selective sentry between the root cortex and vascular tissue. The ascent of xylem sap depends mainly on transpiration and the physical properties of water. Xylem sap ascends by solar-powered bulk flow. Guard cells mediate the photosynthesis-transpiration compromise. Xerophytes have evolutionary adaptations that reduce transpiration. Phloem translocates its sap from sugars sources to sugar sinks. Pressure flow is the mechanism of translocation in angiosperms. The chemical composition of plants provides clues to their nutritional requirements. Plants require nine macronutrients and at least eight micronutrients. The symptoms of a mineral deficiency depend on the function and mobility of the element. Soil characteristics are key environmental factors in terrestrial ecosystems. Soil conservation is one step toward sustainable agriculture. The metabolism of soil bacteria makes nitrogen available to plants. Improving the protein yield of crops is a major goal of agricultural research. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation results from intricate interactions between roots and bacteria. Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations of roots and fungi that enhance plant nutrition. Parasitic plants extract nutrients from other plants. Carnivorous plants supplement their mineral nutrition by digesting animals.
Terms	Readings
Transport proteins Selective channels Proton pump Cotransport Chemiosmosis Osmosis Water potential Flaccid Plasmolyze Turgor pressure Turgid Aquaporins Tonoplast Symplast Apoplast Bulk flow Mycorrhizae Endodermis Casparian strip Transpiration Root pressure Guttation Transpirational pull Cohesion of water Adhesion of water Photosynthesis/transpiration compromise Circadian rhythms Xerophytes Sugar source Sugar sink Transfer cells Pressure-flow mechanism Essential nutrient Macronutrients Micronutrients Mineral deficiency Soil characteristics Topsoil Humus Soil horizons Loams Soil conservation Fertilizers Irrigation Erosion Phytoremediation Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Nitrogen fixation Symbiotic relationships Root nodules Bacteriods Parasitic plants Carnivorous plants	Text: Chapters 36 & 37
Resources	Assignments

Session #: 15

Summary
Sexual reproduction includes sporophyte and gametophyte generations’ alternate in the life cycles of plants. Flowers are specialized shoots bearing the reproductive organs of the angiosperm sporophyte. Male and female gametophytes develop within anthers and ovaries, respectively: Pollination brings them together. Plants have various mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization. Double fertilization gives rise to the zygote and endosperm. The ovule develops into a seed containing an embryo and a supply of nutrients. Many plants clone themselves by asexual reproduction. Sexual and asexual reproductions are complementary in the life histories of many plants. Vegetative propagation of plants is common in agriculture. Neolithic humans created new plant varieties by artificial selection. Biotechnology is transforming agriculture. Plant biotechnology had incited much public debate.
Terms	Readings
Alternation of generations Sporophyte Gametophyte Flower Sepals Petals Stamens Carpels Receptacle Anther Ovary Ovules Complete flowers Incomplete flowers Bisexual flower Unisexual flower Monoecious Dioecious Micropsores Megasopores Pollen grains Pollination Self-incompatibility Double fertilization Endosperm Mature seed Seed coat Hypocotyl Radicle Epicotyl Scutellum Coleorhiza Coleoptile Fruit Pericarp Seed dormancy Vegetative propagation Fragmentation Apomixes Clones from cuttings Callus Stock plant Scion plant Biotechnology Transgenic plants	Text: Chapter 38
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